Sufi 1

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BBC: SUFISM

Last updated 2009-09-08

Sufism is Islamic mysticism. This article provides a description of Sufism and information about its history and practice.


Introduction

Sufism

Sufism, or Tasawwuf as it is known in the Muslim world, is Islamic mysticism (Lings, Martin, What is Sufism?, The Islamic Texts Society, 1999, pg 15).

Non-Muslims often mistake Sufism as a sect of Islam. Sufism is more accurately described as an aspect or dimension of Islam. Sufi orders (Tariqas) can be found in Sunni, Shia and other Islamic groups. Ibn Khaldun, the 14th century Arab historian, described Sufism as:

"... dedication to worship, total dedication to Allah most High, disregard for the finery and ornament of the world, abstinence from the pleasure, wealth, and prestige sought by most men, and retiring from others to worship alone."

Ibn Khaldun, quoted in Keller, Nuh Ha Mim, The Place of Tasawwuf in Traditional Islam, www.masud.co.uk, 1995


Ibn Khaldun's words are an accurate description of Sufis today.

Sufis are emphatic that Islamic knowledge should be learned from teachers and not exclusively from books. Tariqas can trace their teachers back through the generations to the Prophet himself. Modelling themselves on their teachers, students hope that they too will glean something of the Prophetic character.

Although Sufis are relatively few in number they have shaped Islamic thought and history. Through the centuries Sufis contributed hugely to Islamic literature for example Rumi, Omar Khayyám and Al-Ghazali's influence extended beyond Muslim lands to be quoted by Western philosophers, writers and theologians. Sufis were influential in spreading Islam particularly to the furthest outposts of the Muslim world in Africa, India and the Far East.

History and theology

Several origins of the word 'sufi' have been suggested. It may derive from the word for 'wool' and the woollen garments worn by early Sufis. It may also have connections with the word for 'purity' and another suggestion is that it has links with the Greek 'sophia' or wisdom.

However throughout history a Sufi was most often understood to be a person of religious learning who aspires to be close to Allah. They understand their purpose in life from the verse of the Qur'an:

"I created the Jinns and humankind only that they may worship me"

Quran 51:56


In pursuit of this goal of worshipping Allah, Sufis belong to Tariqas, or orders, established in the first few centuries after the Prophet's death. These orders have a master who will teach sacred knowledge to others in the group.

Although Tariqas have a long history, in recent times some Muslims have questioned the necessity of Tariqas arguing that they were alien to the Prophet himself. Sufis make a convincing defence from the Qur'an and Sunna (what the Prophet said, did, agreed to or condemned).

Sufis acknowledge that Tariqas were not established at the time of the Prophet. They consider that the Prophet his companions and their immediate successors, the first three generations, embodied Islamic mysticism but the phenomenon was too general to have a specific name. Later generations of Muslims became distracted by worldliness and so those, now in the minority, that were dedicated to worshipping Allah were given the name Sufi. This turn of events was eloquently described in the 10th Century by Abu l-Hasan Fushanji who said:

"Today Sufism is a name without a reality. It was once a reality without a name."

Abu l-Hasan Fushanji, quoted in Lings, Martin, What is Sufism?, The Islamic Texts Society, 1999, pg 45


Although the word Sufism is absent from prophetic speech, it's believed Sufism's place in Islam is described by the Prophet:

Umar ibn al-Khattab, a companion of the prophet, said:

"One day we were sitting in the company of Allah's Apostle (peace be upon him) when there appeared before us a man dressed in pure white clothes, his hair extraordinarily black. There were no signs of travel on him. None amongst us recognized him. At last he sat with the Apostle (peace be upon him). He knelt before him placed his palms on his thighs and said: Muhammad, inform me about Islam.

"The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said: Islam implies that you testify that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is the messenger of Allah, and you establish prayer, pay Zakat, observe the fast of Ramadan, and perform pilgrimage to the (House) if you are solvent enough (to bear the expense of) the journey. He (the inquirer) said: You have told the truth.

"It amazed us that he would put the question and then he would himself verify the truth.

"He (the inquirer) said: Inform me about Iman.

"He (the Holy Prophet) replied: That you affirm your faith in Allah, in His angels, in His Books, in His Apostles, in the Day of Judgment, and you affirm your faith in the Divine Decree about good and evil.

"He (the inquirer) said: You have told the truth. He again said: Inform me about Ihsan.

"He (the Holy Prophet) said: That you worship Allah as if you are seeing Him, for though you don't see Him, He, verily, sees you.

"He (the enquirer) again said: Inform me about the hour (of the Doom).

"He (the Holy Prophet) remarked: One who is asked knows no more than the one who is inquiring (about it).

"He (the inquirer) said: Tell me some of its indications.

"He (the Holy Prophet) said: That the slave-girl will give birth to her mistress and master, that you will find barefooted, destitute goat-herds vying with one another in the construction of magnificent buildings.

"Then he (the inquirer) went on his way but I stayed with him (the Holy Prophet) for a long while. He then, said to me: Umar, do you know who this inquirer was? I replied: Allah and His Apostle knows best. He (the Holy Prophet) remarked: He was Gabriel (the angel). He came to you in order to instruct you in matters of religion."

Sahih Muslim, Book 1:Number 1


In this well-known hadith the angel Gabriel asks about pivotal features of the Islamic belief. They included Islam, Iman, and Ihsan. Islam is the outward practice of the religion. Iman is the belief in the unseen and what the prophets have informed us of. Ihsan is to worship Allah as though one sees him. Traditionally scholars were able to teach each of these essential parts of Islam. The Imams of Sharia or 'sacred law' taught at the level of Islam. The Imams of Aqida or 'tenets of faith' taught Iman. The Imams of Sufism taught at the level of Ihsan.

The need to learn from a teacher is based on the Quranic verses:

"Ask those who know if you know not"

Qur'an 16:43

"And follow the path of him who turns unto Me"

Qur'an 31:15


Practice

Sufis could be described as devout Muslims; praying five times a day, giving to charity, fasting etc, they adhere strictly to the outward observance of Islam. But they are distinctive in nurturing theirs and others' spiritual dimension. They are aware that one of the names of the Prophet was Dhikr Allah (Remembrance of God).

Dhikr as practised by Sufis is the invocation of Allah's divine names, verses from the Qur'an, or sayings of the Prophet in order to glorify Allah. Dhikr is encouraged either individually or in groups and is a source of tranquillity for Sufis.

"...hearts become tranquil through the remembrance of Allah"

Qur'an 13:28

Many Sufis have used the metaphor of lovers to describe the state Dhikr leaves them in. Sufis say adherence to the Sharia manifests in the limbs and Dhikr manifests in the heart with the result that the outward is sober, the inner is drunk on divine love. [Source: BBC]

http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/subdivisions/sufism_1.shtml

Links:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4746019.stm
http://www.sufism.org/society/articles/women.html
http://www.uga.edu/islam/Sufism.html

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Encyclopaedia Britannica

SUFISM

Annemarie Schimmel #

Sufism, also spelled Sufism, Mystical movement within Islam that seeks to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God.

It consists of a variety of mystical paths that are designed to ascertain the nature of mankind and God and to facilitate the experience of divine love and wisdom in the world. Sufism arose as an organized movement after the death of Muhammad (632 ce), among different groups who found orthodox Islam to be spiritually stifling. The practices of contemporary Sufi orders and suborders vary, but most include the recitation of the name of God or of certain phrases from the Quran as a way to loosen the bonds of the lower self, enabling the soul to experience the higher reality toward which it naturally aspires. Though Sufi practitioners have often been at odds with the mainstream of Islamic theology and law, the importance of Sufism in the history of Islam is incalculable. Sufi literature, especially love poetry, represents a golden age in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Urdu languages. See also Ahmadiyyah; dervish; Malāmatiyyah; tariqa.

Sufism, also spelled Sufism, mystical Islāmic belief and practice in which Muslims seek to find the truth of divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. It consists of a variety of mystical paths that are designed to ascertain the nature of man and God and to facilitate the experience of the presence of divine love and wisdom in the world.

Islāmic mysticism is called tasawwuf (literally, “to dress in wool”) in Arabic, but it has been called Sufism in Western languages since the early 19th century. An abstract word, Sufism derives from the Arabic term for a mystic, Sufi, which is in turn derived from Suf, “wool,” plausibly a reference to the woollen garment of early Islāmic ascetics. The Sufis are also generally known as “the poor,” fuqarāh, plural of the Arabic faqīr, in Persian darvīsh, whence the English words fakir and dervish.

Though the roots of Islāmic mysticism formerly were supposed to have stemmed from various non-Islāmic sources in ancient Europe and even India, it now seems established that the movement grew out of early Islāmic asceticism that developed as a counterweight to the increasing worldiness of the expanding Muslim community; only later were foreign elements that were compatible with mystical theology and practices adopted and made to conform to Islām.

By educating the masses and deepening the spiritual concerns of the Muslims, Sufism has played an important role in the formation of Muslim society. Opposed to the dry casuistry of the lawyer-divines, the mystics nevertheless scrupulously observed the commands of the divine law. The Sufis have been further responsible for a large-scale missionary activity all over the world, which still continues. Sufis have elaborated the image of the prophet Muhammad—the founder of Islām—and have thus largely influenced Muslim piety by their Muhammad-mysticism. Without the Sufi vocabulary, Persian and other literatures related to it, such as Turkish, Urdu, Sindhi, Pashto, and Panjabi, would lack their special charms. Through the poetry of these literatures mystical ideas spread widely among the Muslims. In some countries Sufi leaders were also active politically.

History

Islāmic mysticism had several stages of growth, including (1) the appearance of early asceticism, (2) the development of a classical mysticism of divine love, and (3) the rise and proliferation of fraternal orders of mystics. Despite these general stages, however, the history of Islāmic mysticism is largely a history of individual mystic experience.

The first stage of Sufism appeared in pious circles as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad period (ad 661–749). From their practice of constantly meditating on the Quranic words about Doomsday, the ascetics became known as “those who always weep” and those who considered this world “a hut of sorrows.” They were distinguished by their scrupulous fulfillment of the injunctions of the Quran and tradition, by many acts of piety, and especially by a predilection for night prayers.

Rise of fraternal orders

Slightly later, mystical orders (fraternal groups centring around the teachings of a leader-founder) began to crystallize. The 13th century, though politically overshadowed by the invasion of the Mongols into the Eastern lands of Islām and the end of the Abbāsid caliphate, was also the golden age of Sufism: the Spanish-born Ibn al Arabī created a comprehensive theosophical system (concerning the relation of God and the world) that was to become the cornerstone for a theory of “Unity of Being.” According to this theory all existence is one, a manifestation of the underlying divine reality. His Egyptian contemporary wrote the finest mystical poems in Arabic. Two other important mystics, who died 1220, were a Persian poet, Farīd od-Dīn Athar, one of the most fertile writers on mystical topics, and a Central Asian master, Najmuddīn Kubrā, who presented elaborate discussions of the psychological experiences through which the mystic adept has to pass.

Sufi literature

Though a prophetic saying (Hadīth) claims that “he who knows God becomes silent,” the Sufis have produced a literature of impressive extent and could defend their writing activities with another hadīth: “He who knows God talks much.” The first systematic books explaining the tenets of Sufism date from the 10th century; but earlier, Muḥāsibī had already written about spiritual education, Hallāj had composed meditations in highly concentrated language, and many Sufis had used poetry for conveying their experiences of the ineffable mystery or had instructed their disciples in letters of cryptographic density. The accounts of Sufism by Sarrāj and his followers, as well as the (biographical works) by Sulamī, Abū Nuaym al-Isfahānī, and others, together with some biographies of individual masters, are the sources for knowledge of early Sufism.

Sufi thought and practice

Important aspects

The mystics drew their vocabulary largely from the Quran, which for Muslims contains all divine wisdom and has to be interpreted with ever-increasing insight. In the Quran, mystics found the threat of the Last Judgment, but they also found the statement that God “loves them and they love him,” which became the basis for love-mysticism. Strict obedience to the religious law and imitation of the Prophet were basic for the mystics. By rigid introspection and mental struggle the mystic tried to purify his baser self from even the smallest signs of selfishness, thus attaining , absolute purity of intention and act. (trust in God) was sometimes practiced to such an extent that every thought of tomorrow was considered irreligious. “Little sleep, little talk, little food” were fundamental; fasting became one of the most important preparations for the spiritual life.

The path

The path (Tarīqah) begins with repentance. A mystical guide (shaykh, pīr) accepts the seeker as disciple (murīd), orders him to follow strict ascetic practices, and suggests certain formulas for meditation. It is said that the disciple should be in the hands of the master “like a corpse in the hand of the washer.” The master teaches him constant struggle (the real “Holy War”) against the lower soul, often represented as a black dog, which should, however, not be killed but merely tamed and used in the way of God. The mystic dwells in a number of spiritual stations, which are described in varying sequence, and, after the initial repentance, comprise abstinence, renunciation, and —according to Muhammad’s saying, “Poverty is my pride”; poverty was sometimes interpreted as having no interest in anything apart from God, the Rich One, but the concrete meaning of poverty prevailed, which is why the mystic is often denoted as “poor,” fakir or dervish. Patience and gratitude belong to higher stations of the path, and consent is the loving acceptance of every affliction.

Symbolism in Sufism

The divine truth was at times revealed to the mystic in visions, auditions, and dreams, in colours and sounds, but to convey these nonrational and ineffable experiences to others the mystic had to rely upon such terminology of worldly experience as that of love and intoxication—often objectionable from the orthodox viewpoint. The symbolism of wine, cup, and cupbearer, first expressed by Abū Yazīd al-Bistāmī in the 9th century, became popular everywhere, whether in the verses of the Arab Ibn al-Fārid, or the Persian Irāqī, or the Turk Yunus Emre, and their followers. The hope for the union of the soul with the divine had to be expressed through images of human yearning and love. The love for lovely boys in which the divine beauty manifests itself—according to the alleged Hadīth “I saw my Lord in the shape of a youth with a cap awry”—was commonplace in Persian poetry. Union was described as the submersion of the drop in the ocean, the state of the iron in the fire, the vision of penetrating light, or the burning of the moth in the candle (first used by Hallāj). Worldly phenomena were seen as black tresses veiling the radiant beauty of the divine countenance. The mystery of unity and diversity was symbolized, for example, under the image of mirrors that reflect the different aspects of the divine, or as prisms colouring the pure light. Every aspect of nature was seen in relation to God. The symbol of the soulbird—in which the human soul is likened to a flying bird—known everywhere, was the centre of Athar’s (“The Birds’ Conversation”). The predilection of the mystical poets for the symbolism of the nightingale and rose (the red rose = God’s perfect beauty; nightingale = soul; first used by Baqli [died 1206]) stems from the soul-bird symbolism. For spiritual education, symbols taken from medicine (healing of the sick soul) and alchemy (changing of base matter into gold) were also used. Many descriptions that were originally applied to God as the goal of love were, in later times, used also for the Prophet, who is said to be like the “dawn between the darkness of the material world and the sun of Reality.”

Theosophical Sufism

Sufism, in its beginnings a practical method of spiritual education and self-realization, grew slowly into a theosophical system by adopting traditions of Neoplatonism, the Hellenistic world, Gnosticism (an ancient esoteric religiophilosophical movement that viewed matter as evil and spirit as good), and spiritual currents from Iran and various countries in the ancient agricultural lands from the eastern Mediterranean to Iraq. One master who contributed to this development was the Persian as-Suhrawardī, called al-Maqtūl (“killed”), executed in 1191 in Aleppo. To him is attributed the philosophy of ishrāq (“illumination”), and he claimed to unite the Persian (Zoroastrian) and Egyptian (Hermetic) traditions. His didactic and doctrinal works in Arabic among other things taught a complicated angelology (theory of angels); some of his smaller Persian treatises depict the journey of the soul across the cosmos; the “Orient” (East) is the world of pure lights and archangels, the “Occident” (West) that of darkness and matter; and man lives in the “Western exile.”

Sufi orders

Organization

Mystical life was first restricted to the relation between a master and a few disciples; the foundations of a monastic system were laid by the Persian Abū Saīd ebn Abī ol-Kheyr (died 1049), but real orders or fraternities came into existence only from the 12th century onward: Abd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī (died 1166) gathered the first and still most important order around himself; then followed the Suhrawardīyah, and the 13th century saw the formation of large numbers of different orders in the East (for example, Kubrawīya in Khvārezm) and West (Shādhilīyah). Thus, Sufism ceased to be the way of the chosen few and influenced the masses. A strict ritual was elaborated: when the adept had found a master for whom he had to feel a preformed affinity, there was an ceremony in which he swore allegiance into the master’s hand; similarities to the initiation in Ismāʿīlism, the 9th-century sect, and in the guilds suggest a possible interaction. The disciple had to undergo a stern training; he was often ordered to perform the lowest work in the community, to serve the brethren, to go out to beg (many of the old monasteries subsisted upon alms). A seclusion period of 40 days under hard conditions was common for the adepts in most orders.

Discipline and ritual

Each order has peculiarities in its ritual. Most start the instruction with breaking the lower soul; others, such as the later Naqshbandīyah, stress the purification of the heart by constant dhikr (“remembrance”) and by discourse with the master. The forms of dhikr vary in the orders. Many of them use the word Allāh, or the profession of faith with its rhythmical wording, sometimes accompanied by movements of the body, or by breath control up to complete holding of the breath. The Mawlawīs, the whirling dervishes, are famous for their dancing ritual, an organized variation of the earlier practices, which were confined to music and poetry. The Rifādis, the so-called , have become known for their practice of hurting themselves while in an ecstatic state that they reach in performing their loud . (Such practices that might well degenerate into mere jugglery are not approved by most orders.) Some orders also teach the , silent repetition of the formulas, and meditation, concentrating upon certain fixed points of the body; thus the Naqshbandīs do not allow any emotional practices and prefer contemplation to ecstasy, perhaps as a result of Buddhist influence from . Other orders have special given to the disciples, such as the protective (“The protective armour of the sea”; for seafaring people—then extended to all travellers) in the Shādhilīyah order. Most of them prescribe for their disciples additional prayers and meditation at the end of each ritual prayer.

Function and role in Islāmic society

The orders formed an excellent means of bringing together the spiritually interested members of the community. They acted as a counterweight against the influence of hairsplitting lawyer-divines and gave the masses an emotional outlet in enthusiastic celebrations (urs, “marriage”) of the anniversaries of the deaths of founders of mystic orders or similar festivals in which they indulged in music and joy. The orders were adaptable to every social level; thus, some of them were responsible for adapting a number of un-Islāmic folkloristic practices such as veneration of saints. Their way of life often differed so much from Islāmic ideals that one distinguishes in Iran and India between orders (law-bound) and (not following the injunctions of the Quran). Some orders were more fitting for the rural population, such as the Aḥmadīyah (after Ahmad al-Badawī; died 1286) in Egypt. The Ahmadīyah, however, even attracted some Mamlūk rulers. The Turkish Bektāshīyah (Haci Bekta, early 14th century), together with strange syncretistic cults, showed a prevalence of the ideals of the Shīites (from Shīah—the followers of Alī, son-in-law of the prophet Muhammad, whose descendants claimed to be rightful successors to the religious leadership of Islām). The figure of Alī played a role also in other fraternities, and the relations between Sufism in the 14th and 15th centuries and the Shīah still have to be explored, as is also true of the general influence of Shīite ideas on Sufism. Other orders, such as the , an offshoot of which still plays an important role among Egyptian officials and employees, are typically . This order demands not a life in solitude but strict adherence to one’s profession and fulfillment of one’s duty. Still other orders were connected with the ruling classes, such as, for a time, the in Mughal India, and the , whose leader had to invest the Ottoman sultan with the sword. The Mawlawīyah is also largely responsible for the development of classical Turkish poetry, music, and , just as the Chishtīyah contributed much to the formation of classical Indo-Muslim music.

Geographical extent of Sufi ordersIt would be impossible to number the members of mystical orders in the Islāmic world. Even in such countries as Turkey, where the orders have been banned since 1925, many people still cling to the mystical tradition and feel themselves to be links in the spiritual chains of the orders and try to implement their ideals in modern society. The most widely spread group is, no doubt, the Qādirīyah, whose adherents are found from West Africa to India—the tomb of Abd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī in Baghdad still being a place of pilgrimage. The areas where the Sanūsīyah live are restricted to the Maghrib, the Atlas Massif, and the coastal plain from Morocco to Tunisia, whereas the Tijānīyah has some offshoots in Turkey. Such rural orders as the Egyptian Ahmadīyah and Dasūqīyah (named after Ibrāhīm ad-Dasūqī; died 1277) are bound to their respective countries, as are the Mawlawīs and to the realms of the former . The Bektāshīyah had gained political importance in the empire because of its relations with the Janissaries, the . Albania, since 1929, has had a strong and officially recognized group of Bektāshīyah who were even granted independent status after . The order extends from India to Java, whereas the Chishtīyah and Suhrawardīyah remain mainly inside the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. The reached Kashmir through Alī Hama-dhānī (died 1385), a versatile author, but the order later lost its influence.

Significance

Sufism has helped to shape large parts of Muslim society. The orthodox disagree with such aspects of Sufism as saint worship, visiting of tombs, musical performances, miracle mongering, degeneration into jugglery, and the adaptation of pre-Islāmic and un-Islāmic customs; and the reformers object to the influences of the monistic interpretation of Islām upon moral life and human activities. The importance given to the figure of the master is accused of yielding negative results; the shaykh as the almost infallible leader of his disciples and admirers could gain dangerous authority and political influence, for the illiterate villagers in backward areas used to rely completely upon the “saint.” Yet, other masters have raised their voices against social inequality and have tried, even at the cost of their lives, to and political conditions for the better and to spiritually revive the masses. The missionary activities of the Sufis have enlarged the fold of the faithful. The importance of Sufism for spiritual education, and inculcation in the faithful of the virtues of trust in God, piety, faith in God’s love, and veneration of the Prophet, cannot be overrated. The formulas still preserve their consoling and quieting power even for the illiterate. Mysticism permeates and other literatures influenced by it. Such poetry has always been a source of happiness for millions, although some modernists have disdained its “narcotic” influence on Muslim thinking.[Britannica]

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Malamatiyah

Malamatiyah, a Sufi (Muslim mystic) group that flourished in Sāmānid Iran during the 8th century. The name Malamatiyah was derived from “to be ignoble,” or “to be wicked”. Malamati doctrines were based on the reproach of the carnal self and a careful watch over its inclinations to surrender to the temptations of the world. They often referred to the Quranic verse “I [God] swear by the reproachful soul” as the basis for their philosophy. This verse, they said, clearly praised a self that constantly reproached and blamed its owner for the slightest deviation from the world. [Britannica]

Tariqa

tariqa, also spelled tariqah, Arabic tarīqah, (“road,” “path,” or “way”), the Muslim spiritual path toward direct knowledge (marifah) of God or Reality (Haqq). In the 9th and 10th centuries tariqa meant the spiritual path of individual Sufis (mystics). After the 12th century, as communities of followers gathered around sheikhs (or pīrs, “teachers”), tariqa came to designate the sheikh’s entire ritual system, which was followed by the community or mystic order. Eventually tariqa came to mean the order itself. Each mystic order claimed a chain of spiritual descent (silsilah) from the Prophet Muhammad. [Britannica]

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